Bad corporate governance Essay

Approach Governance Governing is a process of implementing decisions, rules and regulations in a group of people. Its concept has been widely used by companies to make their workers comply a set of agreed actions that were done and ordered by the management. The management’s ways of doing rules and policies has a big effect in a company’s performance as a whole. As decision making is vital to a company, the management should be equipped with the knowledge of how they are going to make their decisions every day. Study of Good and Bad Governance Good Governance Good governance will surely give benefits to the company, employees, customers and suppliers. Its implemented decisions had considered the characteristics of Participation, Rule of Law, Transparency, Responsiveness, Consensus Orientation, Equity and Inclusiveness, Effectiveness and Efficiency and Accountability that if complied well, it will bring good feedbacks and result to the company. Bad Governance Mismanagement has always been a problem in all companies which is a start of bad governance. Bad governance emerges when conflict rises among people who are involved in the company. It includes conflict of interest, political issues among members of the company, social problems, discrimination, lack of participation and more. When employees or the people concerned to the company starts to ask questions about the decision of the company’s management, then there is an unclear part in that certain decisions being implemented that employees do not understand or agreed. Analysis All companies have their different mission and vision as their instrument and inspiration to be the best that they can to survive in a very competitive market. In this paper, we will examine the different possible causes why the UK Industrial Company and MISnet Inc. failed. Sample Study: The UK Industrial Company Failure The UK Industrials is composed of 539 firms and observed from 1988-1993. From table 1, we can see that from the original 539 companies, 56 companies from the group exit the firm because of its financial stabilities. This resulted to shake to the whole company making it like a domino effect to fail the company. The case study made by John Hunter and Natalia Isachenkova for the UK industries explained that the result of the UK Industrial failure is its lack of knowledge in determining the financial stability of the industry which is very important for investment decisions at the micro level. Individuality also played a big part in their failure because the study showed a big evidence of division from different panels as such, decision making regarding the industries financial problem, profits, liquidity, turnovers and changes were greatly affected. Aside from the causes of failure mentioned, the industry is also said to have focused on their current cash flow rather than also thinking about the future economic value of the firm according in their future cash flows.

Youth Work

Adolescent Development I am going to discuss the factors affecting young people during adolescent development. I will be exploring the physical and physiological, psychological, and social impact of change in adolescent, and the theories relating to the stages of development and identity formation. Adolescence is the period of transition to adulthood. The first thing I am going to consider is the physical and physiological changes associated with adolescence. During this time a young person will experience physical and emotional changes. This can take 5 years or more and is a long process. At this period of rapid growth and sexual development in adolescence is called puberty. Growth and development of the body is controlled by chemicals called hormones. There is an increase in strength and height which if it occurs quickly it may cause the young person to have balance and co-ordination difficulties. It is difficult to determine specific times when the developmental changes occur; these will differ from person to person. However girls develop approximately two years earlier than boys. In girls during this period menstruation begins and physical changes happen such as breasts, pubic hair, body hair and sexual organs begin to grow. Changes In boys, pubic hair, facial hair and body hair begin to grow, including sexual organs testes and penis. The testosterone increasing sexual urges and erections, the pituary gland is responsible for releasing the hormones which have an effect on boys and girls. Hormones have a significant effect on young people; the signs may be changes in attitude and behaviour. A young person may experience feelings of anxiety, confusion, delusion, anger, frustration, fear, stress and humiliation. They may have a low opinion of themselves and their abilities and have anger they don’t know how to express in a productive way. Additional factors include culture expectations, peer pressure, pressure to achieve and there may be relationship issues with parents including conflict. Young people are searching for their own identity as well as pressure from the media and stereotypes formed by society and their environment. Some young people may have to face personal transitions not necessarily shared or understood by all their peers. These include family illness bereavement, divorce and family break up; issues relating to sexuality, disability and many more. Using the theory in practice I feel that I am using effective communication like listening, observation, empathy, and reflection increasing my knowledge and understanding of groups. One of the theory’s by Bruce Tuckman was â€Å"encouraging engagement involving and consulting with young people and considering their opinions, views, interests and issues that affect them† promoting the 4 corner stone’s of youth work. I have identified some possible changes in gender in specific to groups in relation to adolescence. Some of the things I have become more aware during formal discussions in key topics of interest are opposite sex, drugs, culture and family break ups, the perceptions of them by the media and their peers, their body image and comparisons with celebrities on TV. I have identified opportunities to discuss and provide information on these issues offering workshops and group activities using different outside agencies with their specialist knowledge. One of the workshops was on drugs and a young person told us about their experiment with drugs and reflected on his feelings and choice. I communicated to him and praised him for being brave; he had identified how he had been influenced by his friends in to taking drugs. I could relate to this issue and can understand that sometimes there is a need to experiment and to feel part off the group it can influence your actions and choices. Social development in adolescence and identity formation is a new way of thinking about oneself. According to Erikson’s â€Å"psychosocial model of development identity must be perceived by the individual but also recognized and confirmed by others†. He believed this socialization process consists of eight phases are universal, and each stage is associated with their own unique developmental crisis. The crisis is an individual is thought to face in adolescence stage 5, 12 to 18 years is that of identity vs. role confusion. The individual will answer the question â€Å"Who am I? † peer relationships play an important role in this event. The individual must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics and religion finding their own niche in adult society and developing a set of long term goals for the future. As suggested by Erikson and research peers become important, adolescents share in common the state of confusion, similar experiences, and feelings of loneliness, conflict with parents or authority, and a lack of identity so often transfer some of their emotional dependency from their parents to their peers. Young people are seeking role models and will imitate and copy behaviour and identity, until they eventually become more stable from their own identity that fits them as an individual. There can be pressures to fit in and be accepted some may become less interested in academic achievement and may engage in illicit behaviour such as drinking , having sexual relationships ,crime and drug use. Peer groups are often perceived by the media and society in a stereotypical, negative manner with frequent references to anti – social behaviour, gun/knife crime, poor educational achievement and teenage pregnancies. The media ,music ,sports ,celebrities has an effect on the way a young person perceives themselves in society and who they identify as role models , they may become more self – conscious of their body image (media portrays image of beauty and perfection ) develop low self – esteem and adopt materialistic or unrealistic goals for the future. In summary adolescences is the period of transition to adulthood. The young person will experience physical and emotional changes which can be quite a long painful process. Identity development is associated with adolescence as suggested by Erikson a sense of identity is not yet fully developed. A firmly established identity also provides a sense of uniqueness as a person . Young people see and experience the world in different ways; they have individual situations and developmental issues. It is important to consider issues of the effects of peer pressure, the media, role models, perceptions by society and appreciate the huge impact of changes on adolescent development. Reflecting on your own experiences and others perspectives enables you to challenge your thinking and engage with young people to reach their own decision , value their own personal experiences by offering support, reassurance in a proactive way to encourage their transition into adult life to achieve a sense of identity, purpose and goal in their life .

Atlantic Charter and Its Affect in Wwii Essay

The Atlantic Charter was an incredibly important policy that would have an impact on the entire world from the moment it was drafted by Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt in August of 1941 to the present day and beyond. The two men met in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, hence the name Atlantic Charter, during World War 2. While it is called the Atlantic Charter, it was technically a joint declaration by the two world leaders and as such not a formal legal document. A few months later the Charter would be agreed upon by all the Allied Nations. It was important both for the specifics included in the document as well as the symbolism of Roosevelt producing the Charter with Churchill. It was more of a set of goals than a specific blueprint and it contained 8 key principles: 1. Renunciation of territorial aggression 2. Opposition to territorial changes without consent of the peoples concerned 3. Support for the right of people to choose their own government 4. Access to raw materials for all nations 5. Support of efforts to improve the economic condition of people throughout the world 6. Freedom from fear and want 7. Freedom of the seas 8. Disarmament of aggressors The Atlantic Charter was completely opposite the actions of the Axis Powers, who were expanding their territory and conquering territory all across the world. The principles set out in the Atlantic Charter would provide a basis for international cooperation and international law. It would also provide a foundation for important economic agreements throughout the world that were strong enough to withstand times when countries might oppose each other on one matter but still need to trade. It would also help in creating boundaries and dealing with the aftermath of the war. From the start of the war in Europe, the United States had maintained a neutral stance. While Franklin D. Roosevelt himself was openly sympathic to the Allies, the American public was opposed to getting involved in a war in Europe. In order to support the Allies without violating neutrality Roosevelt redefined the actual neutrality act in the United States. Roosevelt sympathized in particular with Britain, who was having an increasingly difficult time dealing with the Germans. A few months before the Atlantic Charter was written, Roosevelt had gotten an important piece of legislation through congress that allowed the United States to give material support to Britain without charging them for it, called the Lend-Lease Act. This had greatly pleased Winston Churchill, the co-author of the Atlantic Charter, because while he appreciated the support of the US, he needed help in the war. The Atlantic Charter provided the philosophical foundation for the Allies in World War 2 and a blueprint for the post-war world. The principles outlined in the Atlantic Charter are still important in the interactions of nations to this day.

LOVE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

LOVE - Essay Example s him, and for that short duration, she feels that the world is on the tip of her fingers because of the happiness that is caused to her when he looks at her. A married couple in love with each other do small things for another everyday to make the other feel special and give them a feeling of something to live for. Love cannot be seen or touched but it exists for those that believe in its power; when someone loves another person, they tend to want to protect them and spend the maximum amount of time that they can with them, making every second count. Love thus makes people happy and makes them want to wake up every single day with a view to meeting that special person that they have a connection with. This can be understood by a simple test of bidding goodbye; people love those the most to whom saying goodbye is very tough. People in love tend to become extremely unhappy on saying goodbye to their loved ones; the tears in their eyes are the exact opposite of the happiness that they feel when they are with them. There have been a number of films, music as well as literature portraying love as a feeling that brings about the most amount of happiness in the world - â€Å"If we assume that mankind has a right to survive then we must find an alternative to war and destruction. "Dont ever let anyone pull you so low as to hate them. We must use the weapon of love. We must have the compassion and understanding for those who hate us. We must realize so many people are taught to hate us that they are not totally responsible for their hate. But we stand in life at midnight; we are always on the threshold of a new dawn."† (King, Martin Luther) According to Martin Luther King, love brings compassion and happiness that can be used as a weapon against those that hate and enjoy causing destruction. The same theories were also propounded and experimented by Mahatma Gandhi who said that non violence or love is the answer to the world’s problems. The point of love is to make

Marketing 4050 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Marketing 4050 - Essay Example Marketing strategy aims for advertisers to maintain and increase customers for their product. The media on its part aim to be the advertisers and consumers favorite in covering the advert. The advert of alcohol promotion is essential and should be done regularly to keep consumers loyal. Many more consumers will prefer that drink to other liquor brands in the market. The ad quality influences the effectiveness it will have on the market (Ware, Baron and Edge). An ad structured in a persuasive, and credible manner will most certainly be more convincing to consumers. Ads have some consistent features that appeal to customers or discourage them. These include alcohol content percentage and drinking age limit. The alcohol content appeals to consumers according to their preference while the warning on age will limit those who are underage. The leading title article relates to the ad as it is on tax increase mostly on alcoholic drinks. This ad focuses on alcoholic consumers and those interested in the drink. It also targets at investors. The ad influences the reader to pledge its loyalty to it. There are many competitive ads competing both for space in the magazine and consumers. This is a smart investment because it does not only market the company’s product but also its image in

Cardio-vascular Diseases (CVDs) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cardio-vascular Diseases (CVDs) - Essay Example This report is made with a view to analyze the important aspects of heart disease with clear examinations of the biochemical, body-functional and symptomatic areas of the disease and the presently available treatment models for the better understanding of all cardio-vascular disorders. Biochemistry of the Disease The defective condition of the heart results in the inferior level of blood flow with a considerably deficit in the supply of oxygen to body cells, and the impact of such a serious lack of the life giving gas results in the damage of the functioning of the brain in some cases. Cardiovascular illness can be attributed to a set of health issues occurring when the fitness of the circulatory system stars declining due to various health disorders. In the biochemical angle, heart disease is grouped into different categories such as arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, angina, heart attack and stroke. The condition of arteriosclerosis occurs when the arteries harden enough to lose th eir flexibility to carry blood proportionately. Atherosclerosis is the thickening of the interior walls of the arteries which results in the diminished blood supply quantity. Also, when the heart doesn’t get enough blood for the functioning, it piles up pains in the chest and this condition is called angina. Clotting of blood or other obstacles in the blood circulation creates partial flow of the blood, which results in heart attacks. The most dangerous of all the conditions is the insufficient supply of oxygen to the brain cells, and it causes strokes which can be partial or complete paralysis of the body in a permanent way. The identified reasons for the cardiovascular disease are hypercholesterolaemia, hypertension and cigarette smoking in most of the cases. The risk factors gradually contribute to the oxidation and arterial inflammation which in the gradual course result in the formation of fibroids or fatty lesions in the arterial interiors. Although there is assumption that genetically transmitted reasons can increase the risk of heart disease, personal healthcare disorder stands as the phenomenal cause for the illness of many people. The disease is diagnosed with the presence of inflammatory CRP (C-reactive protein) and the cardiac myofilament protein troponin which can directly cause heart failure (HF). As Scott points out, although the presence of calcium suppresses the HF, hypertension causes cardiac hypertrophy and permanent loss of cardiac cells. The protein synthesis that occurs with the oxidation process in the arteries results in the accumulation of atherosclerotic plaque and a resultant HF. As a results, monocytes stick to the endothelian cells and gradually cause the blockage of arteries with CD36 and SR-A (Scott). The continuous process of plaque weakening has an increased risk of initiating platelet recruitment which may even result in the production of sarcomeric proteins, an immediate cause of death. In all these conditions, the ult imate impact of the dysfunctions is reflected in the weakening of the cardiovascular cells to a fatal condition. Body systems Heart disease and body systems have a peripheral relationship in every angle, as the circulatory system is the life guard of the entire body cells. It is

History Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 13

History - Assignment Example John River a through the Lake St. John and Lake Nipissing to the south end. East Florida, on the other hand, was bounded to the west by the Gulf of Mexico and Apalachicola River. In the same way, West Florida was enclosed by the Gulf of Mexico on the south. Lastly, islands of Grenada, together with Grenadines and the Islands of Dominico, St. Vincents and Tobago, shall be put under the care and inspection by the Governor of Newfoundland. If someone had already settled on those lands reserved for Indians, then these people shall be forced to immediately remove themselves from the settlements. To facilitate this action, the governors and commanders-in-chief of all colonies as well as those under the Government and Direction of Proprietaries will implement the provisions in the treaty. Also, officers in the military and those under the Management and Direction of Indian Affairs shall arrest those who will commit crimes and violate the treaty. Violators shall be subjected to trial in the colony where the crime is committed. People are not allowed to buy land from the Indians because, according to the government, because people are connected with the tribe. Also, since it is assumed that the Indians live under the protection of the people, the crown took the responsibility of protecting hunting grounds for Indians. In this way, their possession in their dominions and territories will not be disturbed or

Potential Possibilities and the Limitations Involved in Formal Essay

Potential Possibilities and the Limitations Involved in Formal Theories of Quantification for Natural Language - Essay Example Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy in Language Proof and Logic give a very understandable argument as to the reasons for quantifiers and the reasons they are not always accurate in their use. A very pertinent consideration for their argument starts out their ninth chapter in Language Proof and Logic by saying, "In English and other natural languages, basic sentences are made by combining noun phrases and verb phrases." (1. Chapter 9 page 227, Language Proof and Logic.) The consideration continues further in that Barwise and Etchemendy contend that, "Quantification takes us out of the realm of truth-functional connectives." (2. Chapter 9 page 227, Language Proof and Logic.) This gives us reason for the consideration that quantifiers are not always the most useful method for determining natural language tendencies. Quantifiers, according to Barwise and Etchemendy, have a tendency to dull the truthfulness of sentences giving them a generalisation that may not bear an ounce of truth within them. In the case of first-order logic, the process assumes that there would be an infinite list of variables so there would be no possible way to run out of these variables, regardless of a sentence's complexity. Theorists like Fitch would understand all of these separate variables involved, of which there are many, but others like Tarski's World would not, in that Tarski's World uses six in place of infinite variables as Fitch would manage. This would in fact present a rather expressive limitation in Tarski's World of language use. Expanding the set of terms of language usually means adding variables to it. At this point, only individual consonants, also known as names would be considered the sole amount of basic terms. Obviously, first-order logic, in the eyes of Barwise and Etchemendy believe a complex series of quantifiers is necessary to describe natural language. They consider universal and existential quantifiers in their equations. Universal quantifiers are those that are all enc ompassing and ultimately considered unconditional. Existential quantifiers are more limiting in scope in giving a value but not a limitless value toward the quantification. W. Tecumseh Fitch, from the University of St. Andrew's School of Psychology wrote a treatise titled The Evolution of Language: A Comparative Review. Fitch says in his work that the study of language evolution is often considered little more than speculative story-telling. Fitch further states that this has actually had little to do with the development of many fields which would touch upon it. Those fields include linguistics, evolutionary biology and neuroscience. Over the last fifteen years increasingly productive study of language evolution has occurred in various different quarters and there is far more collaboration and exchange in relation to this increasing study. There in fact would be three key innovations which should be explained in language evolution. The first critical step would be to distinguish among the various component abilities in languages. Mechanisms that are both

Promotional campaigns and consumers behavior Essay

Promotional campaigns and consumers behavior - Essay Example Currently,marketing creativity is focused on the study and analysis of consumer’s buying behavior.On the one hand,promotional campaigns that we can see every day may seem to us an ordinary event In reality, there is a need to cover numerous and diverse issues for marketers in order to satisfy the needs of the customers and make them buy a certain product. One may think that it is hardly realistic that a consumer may be influenced by some special strategies and appeal to: psychology of customers (the way they think; the way the customer is influenced by his environment); the behavior of customers in the process of shopping; the value of products and a real value of a certain product for the customers and many other factors (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987). Basically, there is a need for marketers to conduct a study of â€Å"individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy nee ds and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society" (Mullen and Johnson 1990, p. 18). Theoretical overview Basically, in order to give an exact answer to the question ‘why promotional campaigns should take into account consumer’s behavior’, it is relevant to refer to the theoretical background of consumer’s psychology. Starting from 70s, scientists and researchers have underlined that consumer’s behavior is greatly influenced by their family members.... Moreover, a complicated nature of a comprehensive buyer’s behavior model is often considered to be inefficient in predicting consumer’s behavior in the future do to its complicated nature. There are two main approaches to the study of consumer’s behavior: the Behavioral Decision Theory and Social-Cognition Approaches to Consumer Research. Both these strategies are based on customer’s perception of a product and an intention to buy it in his consciousness (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987). Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky are representatives of BDT approach to the study of consumer’s behavior. Consumer’s choice is the main objective of the scientists’ researches. A practical aspect In order to practically implement a theoretical knowledge about a consumer’s choice which is shaped under the influence of his consciousness, the promotional campaigns are developed with regard to the mental and social peculiarities, economical and many othe r factors of the target group (Holbrook, 1999). For example, it is rather hard to promote products of daily consumption. There are a lot of different producers and very often a consumer’s choice can be easily changed. â€Å"A Cup of Instant Culture† is a slogan created by Maxwell Coffee in previous years. In XXI century drinking coffee is an integral part of an individual’s image (Aaker, J.L., 1997). For example, if advertising campaign shows a smiling business woman or business man who drinks coffee, the consumers people in their consciousness would perceive this ad as exemplifying two concepts ‘success’ and ‘coffee’ as interrelated ones (Gerritt, 1999). In the modern world we often see exotic advertising of coffee. Coffee

The Legal and Ethical Environment of Business Essay - 1

The Legal and Ethical Environment of Business - Essay Example As the oil industry is directly related to the political setting, it is expected that the takeover of the United States and the Coalition forces since 2003 as well as the new constitution in place will create new opportunities for foreign investors. The Iraqi Constitution of 2005 clearly stipulates the provision of business prospects for international oil companies (IOCs). The global policy forum recognizes this: "In the new setting, with Washington running the show, "friendly" companies expect to gain most of the lucrative oil deals that will be worth hundreds of billions of dollars in profits in the coming decades. The new Iraqi constitution of 2005, greatly influenced by US advisors, contains language that guarantees a major role for foreign companies" (Oil in Iraq 2006). DWI can take advantage of this by pursuing oil exploration in Iraq. This new venture is expected to raise its oil production as well as it revenue and profit. DWI will be able to produce high-grade crude that is extraordinarily cheap to manufacture. In Iraq, discovery and development cost is only $0.5/B and $0.5-$1.0/B, respectively. As the constitution of the new Iraq government is still under establishment, there are no concrete laws which govern the oil industry.

Liberia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Liberia - Essay Example In fact, even African slaves from other parts of Africa were also sent here instead of their place of origin. Until today, Liberia is assisted by the U.S. as evidenced by the fact that â€Å" The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) implements the U.S. Governments development assistance program in Liberia, the second-largest USAID development program in Africa† (Liberia, state.gov). The economy of Liberia. The GDP of Liberia according to 2008 estimate totals to $1.471 billion or $379.9 per capita ( IMF , 2009). On the other hand, U.S. has a GDP of â€Å" $14,461.7 billion in the last quarter of 2009† ( bea.gov.) posting a 6.3% increase in GDP. On the contrary, Liberia’s GDP growth rate is as of 2009 was projected at 1.2% ( U.S. Dept. of State, 2010). Liberia’s economy is basically agricultural although it has sizeable resources of iron ore and rubber. In fact, rubber is one of its biggest exports which is followed by timber ( Bateman, et.al, 2000). Liberia has good prospects in advancement when it comes to technology. In 2007, Liberia’s president, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf unveiled the new National and Communication Technologies Policy for Liberia in a conference in its capital, Monrovia. The said convention was sponsored by big names in ICT industry such as Microsoft , Cisco, and Georgia Institute of Technology that sponsored the two national facilities: a community-based PC laboratory and a multi-media laboratory ( Webwire,2007). Analyzing from this events , Liberia is heavily dependent on foreign investment and aid from the U.S. While Liberia is continuously developing ICT, U.S. is on the wake of finding solutions to curb its greenhouse gas emissions. Its technological development is now geared towards finding more â€Å"environment-friendly† sources of energy similar to the thrust of the United Kingdom. In fact, one the U.S. hottest pursuits now is searching for bio-fuels for a cleaner future as reported ( Peller in,2010

Doctor Patient Communication Essay Example for Free

Doctor Patient Communication Essay This is the adopted mode of communication with the patient aiming at firstly, getting enough history or information towards diagnosing the patient presenting complaint and equally ensuring that the patient’s right to privacy, good health, and permission as the need arises, is not compromised during the process. â€Å"When communication and rapport is poor, patients are at risk of distressed and doubt doctor’s competence† (Allen, 2000). Research reports that patients often wrongly base clinical skills on communication effectiveness. Patient with this bias mind eventually shows poor cooperation with treatments. This is more reason why it is an ethical issue. The present state of the patient’s psychological state is important. A depressed patient would prefer less talk than a patient who is worried to get fast cure and some times talk out of points if unguided by an experience doctor. Due to diverse understanding from multicultural views, it is necessary to understand the biological ethnicity of each patient through a ‘biodata’ aspect of the history. From the biodata, the religious denomination is noted. The occupation, family and social histories also reveal the mental state. Doctor’s adoption of line of thought would be of help. For example, a friendly way of approach gives the patients sense of worth and avoids any feelings of inferiority complex that may hinder patient’s opening up in detail. The doctor also needs not unnecessarily friendly, this could denote carefree attitude at times. 80% of the treatment receives is dependent of how elaborate is the history taken by the doctor. An understanding of introversion and extroversion communication type equally helps. It is necessary to carry the patient along, after the knowledge about the patient’s present state, preempt the patients’ worry and briefly explain why the next question is necessary.

Assessment and process of medical education

Assessment and process of medical education Assessment plays an important role in the process of medical education as it is an effective tool which detect quality in students training to motivate and direct them to what they must learn(1). Assessment drives learning this statement focus on the essential role of assessment as well planned and implemented assessment has an important steering effect on learning because it transfers what is important to learn and motivate students for learning(2). Many people argued that as the curriculum should be the key which motivate learning while assessment should be designed to be sure that learning outcomes have occurred, So assessment tool must has clarity of the learning purpose and must be designed to drive educational intent and maximize learning(3). Constructive alignment is an important influential idea in which the students construct meaning from related learning activities and teachers apply learning environment which support planned learning activities to achieve the intended learning outcomes(4). So constructive alignment makes the teaching systems consistent when curriculum, learning activities and assessment methods are aligned with intended learning outcomes(5) . Moreover, assessment may reveal learning outcome which isnt expected but it is recognized as important outcome, so it must be integrated into the intended learning outcome as emergent outcome(6). Formative assessment promotes deeper learning as it provides students with feedback to encourage them to know their strength and weakness which reinforce students internal motivation to learn and improve their knowledge and skills(7). Summative assessment is a final assessment which determine the rank-order students and decide grades(1). Wass et al(7) argued superficial learning which aim mainly on passing the examination and they emphasized on the importance of feedback on students assessment which encourage student reflection and deep learning. However, Epstein(8) showed that summative assessment influence learning even in the absence of feedback as students study what they expect to be tested on. Although formative and summative assessment are stark in contrast, they are both necessary and distinction between them should be made to detect which assessment is suitable only for formative use or have sufficient rigorous for summative use(7). Van der Vleuten and Schuwirth(9) emphasize d that formative and summative assessment can be used with little difference with focusing on the development of comprehensive assessment programme in which both encourage learning and right decision about learners. I will focus my writing on written assessment as I am involved in assessing written examination of MSc of Radiology scince 5 years. According to Miller pyramid we use written assessment to assess the domain of cognition, either factual recall of knowledge knows or application of knowledge and problem solving knows how. We use written assessment in the form of essays and multiple choice questions in formative assessment of the residents and in summative assessment of final exam. Our final written exam formed of two papers of essays, each one formed of four essay questions with three hours duration for each, and third paper of 20 multiple choice questions with one hour duration. When we prepare a written exam we identify the level of residents training to apply test which assess knowledge appropriate to students experience. Essay questions are effective method for assessing cognitive skills as they can assess ability of students to form answer and measure their attitude and opinions, also they can give students effective feedback on their learning(10,11). But it has the disadvantage of being time-consuming test to grade and its test doesnt cover a wide domain. Newble and Cannon(11) stated that essay is either extended response questions which are useful in assessing higher cognitive skills like analysis, synthesis , problem solving, and restricted response questions used for testing knowledge of lower level but it has the advantage of being more reliable as scoring variation can decreased with it. Epstein(8) stated that well structured essay with clear framework can eliminate cueing and maintain more cognitive process with context rich answers. We usually used extended response questions by which we assess students higher level of knowledge, but I think for improving essay test utility, we must make mix of the two essays types with using clear words on constructing questions like using describe, criticize and compare instead of discuss to direct students to desired answer, as I find some poor structured essay questions in our exam, for example discuss radiological imaging of breast mass which I can change it to be compare between ultrasoun d and mammography for differentiating breast mass. Van der vleuten(12) stated five criteria to assess assessment tool utility which are reliability, validity, educational impact, acceptability and cost effectiveness. Reliability measures consistency of the assessment test and it is often described as reliability per hour of testing time as time is a limiting factor during exam, so essays are low reliable than MCQ because it require longer time to answer(13). Schuwrith and Van der Vleuten(14) stated that inter-case correlation of different essays in certain test is low as the essays numbers which can be asked in a certain test is limited. Chase(15) stated that essay scoring is a complex process as it has many variables which are essay content, writer, rater and other colleague variability with their significant writing effect. The most important type of reliability for rater-type assessment is inter-rater reliability, single inter-rater reliability (which mean correlation between two raters) ranges from 0.3 to 0.8 as this depend on topic of the essay, the essay length, the rater experience and the level of rater training(16). But Munro(17) et al stated that single inter-rater reliability can be regularly obtained as 0.7 if there is continuous extensive rater training. On agreement with those authors about increasing inter-rater reliability we already use double markers for assessing essays question and the mean of their score is calculated to be the end score. Essays are poor objective test for assessing learning outcomes as there is variability in the assessment scores through different examiner with variation of perfect answer (18,19). Norman et al(20) stated that providing structured marking of the essay may improve its reliability but it may cause process trivialization. Schuwrith and Van der Vleuten(14) emphasized that using one marker for each essay for all students is more reliable than one marker for all essays of the same student. Davis(18) stated that using double marking for the same question is mandatory to reduce variation incidence between the markers. Beattie and James(21) suggested using checklist in marking essay to reduce subjectivity and improve objectivity of essay as it provides the examiner with key point of each item and its allocated marks. As mentioned before, double markers are applied in our radiology department for assessing each question but we dont use checklist in marking the essay question, so I think this m ake our examination less reliable with poor objectivity and we have to use checklist with specific marks on each part of the question. Validity is the ability of assessing method to measure what is purported to(19). The valid method will reflect what the students achieved from intended learning objectives of the course, so increasing the test item is essential for more valid test, therefore the validity of the essays is limited(6). Brown(22) advises using large numbers of short essays to improve its reliability and validity and to reduce sampling errors. However, Davis(18) argued that as this may cause more time consuming to mark. As we begin to apply a test blueprint to determine the main content of the test which must have high content validity to cover intended learning objectives, we have to use larger number of shorter essays to be eight to ten short essays instead of four long essays according to test blueprint. Van der Vleuten(23) stated that assessment methods should have content validity which must be designed and mapped on a blueprint. Modified essay questions was initially produced by the Royal College of General Practitioners in London and are widely used now(11). Davis(18) stated the importance of using context rich scenario which will direct the students to answer with precise data and increase exam reality. Schuwirth and Van der Vleuten(14) showed that written case-simulation essay appeared to be more valid as its questions focus on history taking, diagnosis, investigation and examination findings which are closely related to real practice. However Swanson et al (24) argued that as these essays arent suitable for assessing problem solving questions. Newble and Cannon(11) showed that certain skills is needed for constructing modified essay questions to avoid giving idea about answers of a previous question or punshing the student on question constructing error. Also, Schuwirth and Van der Vleuten(13) emphasized that considerable structure of essay question is necessary but over-structuring may lead to limited i ncrease in its reliability, As we use essays in both formative and summative assessment we have to use modified essays instead of traditional essays especially in resident formative assessment as we returned it to students with its model answer for discussing during the tutorial, as this will encourage student critical thinking and reflection, but also we must take training about constructing modified essay questions to avoid poor form which may cause assessment error. Schuwirth and Van der Vleuten(13) advised using essays in limited occasions when objective tests are not suitable, Objective written tests like short answer question, matching exercise and multiple choice questions ( MCQ) have the advantage of being economic, rapidly scoring, high reliable and evaluate the student in large content(25). There are two major format of MCQ which are True/False format and single best answer. True/False format can cover a broad amount of the topics and are easily marked but they mainly measure definitions and simple facts(26). Case and Swanson(27) explained why using True/False format is markedly reduced as it is not only difficult to construct but it mainly used to assess recalling of isolated fact to avoid ambiguous items, also they cant detect if the student who identify correctly the false statement knows the right answer or not. Another disadvantage of true/false format is their high probability of guessing(28). To overcome guessing, negative marking was achieved in which there is deducing marks for the wrong answer, but these may produce negative psychometric results(25). We sometimes use true/false format instead of single best answer, as we think it covers a broad items in the curriculum and can measure complex outcomes but we dont apply negative marking for MCQ correction as we think that is stressful to the students, also I have bad memory about using negative marking when I was medical student at 2nd year I got 19/50 in physiology MCQ test and this caused to me poor willingness to MCQ risk. When, I read carefully a previous exam of True/False format, unfortunately I find some unambiguous questions which may cause a critical failure for these questions. So I think we must limit using these types only for assessing definitions and facts identifications and apply other types of objective tests to avoid the guessing probability of true/false format. This is in agreement with Schuwrith et al(13) who stated that True/false questions are only suitable when the question purpose is to evaluate if the student is able to determine the correctness of hypothesis. MCQ are able to evaluate broad range of learning outcomes within a short time and limited human intervention, also they have low guessing probability with free question of ambiguity(29). In the tutorial of decembrer 2010, there is a debate about effect of MCQ guessing on test reliability, but I learn from the discussion an interesting concept which emphasized that guessing doesnt change test reliability as good student is a good guesser. For constructing good MCQ items it is essential to have a good idea about the content, study the objective of the assessment and apply high quality form for items writing(27). MCQ consist of stem and several options, stem is formed of sentence or question and may be accompanied by diagrams or tables, while the correct option is defined as keyed response and the wrong options are called distracters(29,30). Case and Swanson(27) stated that MCQ must be well structured to be simple, easily understood with using plausible distracters, also grammatical errors especially using negative and inaccurate words like never, sometimes, frequently and usually should be avoided as they may lead to examinees confusions(31). Lowe(32) stated that the useful distracters should demonstrate a misconception between the students about the right option, so writing many plausible distracters is a difficult part for MCQ construction with more time consuming. The flaws of writing distracters which include using more than correct answer, using all of the above or none of the above, or making the right option is the longest one should be avoided(33). MCQ reliability increase with removing non plausible distraction(34,35). Although we choose MCQ from question banks or MCQ books to reduce the examination preparation time , unfortunately I find many drawbacks in our last MCQ exam, firstly one question contains doubl e negatives, also in another question I find it was easily to eliminate some distracters, while other questions contain inaccurate words which are sometimes and always. So I think we must take care during choosing MCQ distracters which should appear to the students as a valid answer while it is incorrect, also we must avoid apparent incorrect or plain distracters. So, we need to take training courses for MCQ preparation and writing MCQ stems and distracters to avoid MCQ flaws and constructing good items. Collins(30) showed that MCQ have the disadvantage of being test knowledge recognition rather than constructing answer. Mcaleer(31) argued that as MCQ are an objective test which doesnt allow students the chance for giving additional information and doesnt apply examiner to put judgment on student answer quality. I agree with Mcaleer(31) as we use MCQ as an objective test to assess understanding knowledge of a broad range of learning objectives within a short time. Reliability is refered to reproducibility of the assessment score and it is expressed as a coefficient which range from 1 for perfect reliability and 0 for no reliability. MCQ are widely used due its high reliability which is attributed to its ability to assess broad amount of knowledge by providing large number of items which address areas of context specificity within a short time(7,30). Downing(36) stated that written test especially MCQ has high internal consistency reliability as the test score would be near the same if exam is repeated at later time. Van der vleuten and Schuwirth(9) showed that the predominant factor which affect reliability is domain as competence depend on context specificity. While McCoubrie(25) argued that and he stated that the assumption of MCQ as a reliable test is weak as they are only reliable because they maintain a time efficient test with wild sampling of topics. Van der vleuten and Schuwirth(9) stated that the reliability of MCQ test in one hour is 0.62 which is increased to 0.93 for four hours test due to using more items number. Wass etal(37) stated that for important exam in which stakes are high a high reliability of 0.8 or more is essential to determine pass-fail decision but for formative assessment lower reliability can be accepted. Our final MCQ exam contain 20 questions with examination time of one hour, s has low reliability due to small number of items within short time which miss many objectives of our curriculum, So I think we have to increase the question numbers to cover more knowledge of context specificity and consequentially increase the test time to improve the test reliability. A criticism of MCQ validity as it measures the factual knowledge and doesnt integrate skills, attitude and communication skills(25). Downing and Yudkowsky(38) emphasized that knowledge is the single best domain which determine expertise, so MCQ is a valid competence method which assess cognitive knowledge. Collins(30) stated that MCQ have a high validity if it represents a wide sample of content that serve the objective learning outcomes. However, Shumway and Harden(1) critic that as MCQ asses discrete superficial knowledge not deep understanding as they designed to detect what students know or dont know. Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives is a hierarchy of knowledge for different cognitive level which are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation(39). While educators simplified Blooms taxonomy into three levels which are knowledge recalling, comprehension and analysis, and problem solving(11). Case and Swanson(27) and Mcaleer(31) showed that well-structured MCQ can assess the taxonomic higher cognitive process like interpretation, application and analysis rather than assessing recalling of facts. Peitzman et al(40) argued that as they stated using higher-order MCQ doesnt improve MCQ validity but it makes them more real and acceptable to students and examiner. Also, Frederiksen(41) stated it is difficult to construct MCQ with rich context as item writers tend to escape from topics which cant be easily asked. In agreement with Case and Swanson(27) and Mcaleer(31), we try to choose MCQ level with different cognitive level, and when I revise our MCQ tests I find some questions which can assess recalling of knowledge(Q*) and other assess problem solving(Q**) for the same topic, example of this is: Q*:what is the effective measure which reduce radiation of CT chest? a-120 mA b-150 mA c-200 mA d-250 mA Q**:what of the following will reduce dose of radiation for CT chest? a-reducing mA from 250 to 150 b- reducing KVp from 160 to 120 c-reducing the pitch to be 1 instead of 2 d-reducing scanning time to be 1 instead of 2 Blueprint is an important powerful tool for integrated curriculum as it maintain assessing all its intended learning objectives.(42). Our faculty assessment centre members work in progress and they make many orientation about blueprint construction and its importance, also they asked all departments to finish their blueprint, but until now we evaluate our exams retrograde according to our ILOs, but unfortunately in some written exam we found that the items dont cover all topics of the curriculum and missed many ILOs, also in other written exam we find a focus on certain system rather than other systems which may produce bias of examination results as the questions sample doesnt represent a big domain of knowledge. So, I think we are urgently in need to use test blueprint which cover the learning objectives and assessing methods to identify the key topics which must be tested according to our objectives and determine the questions numbers according to their corresponding weight in the context. This is in agreement with Downing and Haladyna(43) who stated that blueprint reduce two validity threats which are under-sampling bias of the curriculum and constructing irrelevant items. Consequential validity is referred to the real impact of an assessment method on learning which appropriately drive students learning(25). Wass et al(7) stated that consequential validity refers to the educational consequence of the test as it produce the desired educational outcomes, which means that students should study subject rather than studying the test. Although consequential validity is an important process, it is ignored by many examiners(44). I think our written exam has significant educational impact on how our students study, as from my experience students study what they need to pass rather than studying the whole integrated information. To improve this, we have to use different forms of written assessment which must cover the important content of the curriculum, and it should be mixed with continuous formative assessment and feedback to steer our students to determine what they study and how they learn. This is in agreement with Van der Vleuten(12) who stated that asse ssment can drive learning through four ways: assessment content and structure, the question which asked and the frequency of repeated examination. Newble and cannon(11) advice using computerized optical mark reader to score and analyze MCQ tests as the computer programmed has the advantage of applying statistical data of the test which include reliability coefficient, standard deviation and test item analysis . In our exam we use a hand marking sheet of answers to correct MCQ. But recently our faculty bought a new computer machine for correcting the MCQ test, so we need to learn how to use it for interpreting the test information as these may help us to improve next exam. Shumway and Harden(1) emphasized that practicability of an assessment method depends on resources, expertise availability and their costs. Resource intensiveness is determined by cost of constructing and correcting the test items(45). Cost includes beginning and continuing resources which are needed for test implantation(1). Essay questions appear to be easily constructed items but specific answer key is needed which may cause more time-consuming for preparation(18). MCQ seem to be easy to grade especially with using computer machine but for good structured items more time is needed for construction(30). Shumway and Harden(1) stated that it is important to consider the relation between the assessment method cost and its benefit. Van der Vleuten(12) critics that as he considered investment in an assessment methods is an investment in teaching and learning process. I think we must take care about the criteria of each method and balanced them against each other as the outcome may change according to the assessment context specificity. Also, In agreement with Van der Vleuten, I think we must use different assessment tools especially for summative assessment for high stakes exam to obtain more reliable and valid assessment. Schuwirth et al(45) explained that students can answer correct MCQ by detecting the right answer but they arent able to answer it in the absence of MCQ options. Graber et al(46) explained the problematic effect of MCQ cueing which may cause diagnostic errors especially if diagnostic reasoning is assessed. Schuwirth et al(14) advise using extended matching items and short-answer question as they can reduce the cueing effect. Extended matching questions (EMQs) are good authentic test as they use real clinical scenario which need sufficient clinical knowledge and can test a wide range of topics for knowledge application and problem-solving ability like diagnosis, investigation and management(47). Beullens et al(48) emphasized that EMQs are able to assess extended learning and minimize recognition effect rather than memorizing facts which is needed for MCQ solving. McAleer(31) critics that as EMQs with its many different items and long list of suitable answers are difficult to construct. However, Schuwrith and Van der Vleuten(13) advice using EMQs as they are good reliable test with short time scoring. We dont have experience in EMQs, but after knowing its importance and its significant role for improving written assessment reliability, I think before applying this form we need training of how construct these questions and how practice them to avoid bad representation of some items. Short answer questions is an important assessing tool because they are objectively scored test as they need clear sets of answer with little guessing incidence(3). McAleer(31) critics that as he stated, although short answer questions are easy constructed item, it is used only to measure recalling of information as they cant measure complex learning outcomes like synthesis and information analysis. Epstein(8) stated that short answer questions can be used for summative and formative assessment but its reliability depend on mainly training the students how they answer these items. We dont apply short answer questions in our exam, but I think we can use in certain situation when we want to cover broad area of content and be sure that the students are able to supply an answer rather than choosing it from many options. Score determines the number of correct answers of an assessment but it doesnt represent the quality of students performance(49). Norcini(50) stated standard setting is the process by which pass mark of exam is determined to distinguish competent from non-competent students as it allows for variation according to the level of test difficulty. There are two types of standard setting: relative (Norm-refrenced) and absolute (criterion-refrenced) standard, in relative standard setting fixed number of students will pass the exam irrespective to their level of competence as it is related to peer performance and fixed percentage of success(50). In our faculty we use relative standard setting to select students with highest score for admission to postgraduate course when fixed number is determined. In the tutorial of , I gain a new information which is supposed from one of our peer who advice using relative standard setting for choosing lower achiever in formative assessment who need extra-training. Absolute standard setting is more suitable for competence test as accurate standard should be determined below which the candidate wouldnt be fit for particular purpose(7). Absolute standard setting may be test-centered method or examinee-centered method, in test-centered method (like Angoff method) the examiner evaluate every item to hypothetically determine how the candidate will get in each item(51). While in examinee-centered method (like contrast group method), panelists decide the pass score by detecting it on the score scale which should be most fit to the exam purpose(52). In our faculty we dont use any forms of standard setting as we use 60% as an ideal setting for pass/fail decision for all test types, But as we recently apply assessing centre in our faculty, I think we must use standard setting in our assessment, in my opinion I prefer applying modified Angoff method as an example of absolute standard setting as it is widely used in medical assessment and it can be used fo r many assessment types. This is in agreement of Smee and Black(53) who stated that modified Angoff method reduce the difficulties of traditional Angoff method ,for examlple the difficulty of detecting hypothetical borderline candidates in Angoff method which is facilitated by supplying the examiners with real test scores of previous assessment of the candidates. Norcini etal(50) stated that absolute standard setting is applied either as conjunctive or compensatory standard, In conjunctive standard the candidate must exceed each item separately to pass the total test, while in compensatory standard the test scoring permit the candidate to compensated poor performance in one item by high performance in another item. In our written assessment we use compensatory method in which the standard is achieved according to total test performance, but now I think we can use conjunctive method in assessing essay paper by which the candidates must pass each essay separately as this will improve their studying to pass in each item. Case and Swanson(27) stated that many medical schools provide their faculty with item analysis of their test before test results are announced by which a useful information about the quality of each item separately and the whole test quality are obtained. Items analysis will be valuable when it maintains effective feedback to test writers as this will improve their skills in further test construction, also it would be helpful in discarding poor items and detecting certain areas of the content which may need more clarity(30). Item difficulty is detected from the proportion of students who answered each item correctly, Items are considered difficult if 50% of students or less answered them correctly and low difficulty if 85% or above of students answer the item, while moderate difficulty which have 60-80% discriminating index are the most discriminating items(30). In the tutorial of December 2010, I gain an important information about the value of applying difficult items in the exam a s these will encourage students towards excellent and to study to get more marks, so I think we must apply certain percentage of difficult items in the exam to drive learning of our students. Item discrimination is determined by the difference of the percentage of correct response between two students group (top third and lower third) with discrimination ratio lie between +1 and -1 and acceptable index is in the range of -0.5 to +0.5(27). Good item has discrimination index closer to +1 as it can distinguish good student from poor one but if poor student can answer more item correctly than good students, this indicate negative discriminating item which should be excluded (30). Downing(36) emphasized that items of MCQ test represented sample of all questions which could be tested, so for test with good internal consistency the test score should be an indicator for the student score on any other set with relevant items. Although our faculty recently develop assessment centre, we dont apply item analysis to any exam, So I think before applying it, we are in need to orient our faculty members about the importance of item analysis and how we use its statistical data to detect c auses of low discriminations , discard poor question, and identify gaps in curriculum. Finally, we use written assessment to assess the major domain of cognition in its low level of knowledge recalling to its high level of knowledge application and problem solving, but as mentioned before, I think our written assessment has low reliability and validity as we use limited number of essay questions, and the percentage of essays marks are more than MCQ marks in our assessment, so we must apply using more objective tests of well structured MCQ, extended matching questions and short answer questions with more essays question especially modified essay, also we must determine the questions numbers according to their corresponding weight in the context and according to test blueprint, as these will facilitate sampling a broad range of relevant contents and constructs of our learning objectives. Although I finish my essay about written assessment, During studying this course I was interested in OSCE assessment and how apply it in our department, but I cant write about it as I dont have experience on applying it because we dont use it in clinical assessment and we use two long cases for applying report and ten short cases for radiological diagnosis for. Now I think we must apply using OSCE in our clinical assessment by using 10-20 stations, some of them are procedure stations like carrying ultrasound examination under observation and other pictorial stations on analyzing radiologic image like conventional, CT, MRI images, and answering context-rich questions related to images. Refrences Shumway JM, Harden RM. AMEE guide No 25: The assessment of learning outcomes for competent and reflective physician. Med Teach.2003;25:569-584. Wass V, Van der Vleuten C,Shatzer J,Jones R. Assessment of clinical competence. Lancet.2001;357:945-949. Dixon H.Candidates views of the MRCGP examination and its effect upon approaches to learning: a questionnaire stu

Person Centred Approach for Depression

Person Centred Approach for Depression SOCIAL THEORIES FOR PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE A REFLECTIVE REPORT ON GROUP POSTER The main purpose of the report is to demonstrate an understanding social work theory for practice person-centred approach in relation to adults with depression; the target audience is social work students. According to Teater (2010:1) theory â€Å"helps to predict, explain and assess situations and behaviours, and provide a rationale for how the social worker should react and intervene.† Therefore social work theory for practice is defined â€Å"as a set of ideas used to guide practice and which are sufficiently coherent that they could if necessary, be made explicit in form which is open them to challenge.† Payne (1997:150) held the view that for a social work theory to be successful in achieving its result it required three elements, perspective, an explaining theory and a model. Teater (2010:4) emphasised that social workers may combine learning theory with social learning theory to work with a service user, as theory informs practice. Payne (2002:270) stated that â €Å"a theory cannot be evaluated only in relation to its ideas and effectiveness, because the ideas have a historical and social context and effectiveness is judged according to particular institutional requirements.† When my group met each group member gave suggestions of what theory they thought would be a good idea we decided to create a poster on Person-centred approach. The title of the poster was â€Å"A person-centred approach in relation to adults with depression: a guide for social work students. The purpose of developing this poster was to inform and educate social work students about Person-centred approach in a relation to adults dealing with depression. To have an understanding of my role and contribution to the group it is essential to review the process of how the team formed. The group formed not as a result of choice but as a result of random selection but with consideration of where we lived as this would make it easier to come together. The formation of the group made me realise that I did not have a choice in deciding who I would work with but despite that I was happy with my group and we worked well to complete the task at hand. The group was small and consisted of 4 people 3 females and 1 male and with different experience and educational background. A group can be defined in a many different ways which relate to function, membership for instance why people join and whether membership is voluntary and its goals and eventual purpose. Cartwright and Zander (1968) describes the group â€Å"as an aggregate of individuals standing in relations to each other, the relations exemplified will depend on or determine the kind of group, whether it is a family, an audience, a committee, union, or crowd†. Hogg et al (2005) defined a team as â€Å"a group of people organised to work interdependently or cooperatively to complete a specific or accomplish a purpose or goal†. On reflection it is essential to note that my group was a task centred one because it was purely set up in order to complete the task at hand. Basically the group had collectivism this relates to â€Å"a world view based on the idea that the group needs and goals are more important than any individual†. We worked to complete the task and went through Bruce Tuckman groups develop through five basic stages: Forming – apprehension, Storming – conflict, Norming – status and role attainment, performing – goal striving and accomplishment, Adjourning – disbanding or re-organizing (Thompson 2010: 92). No one had been nominated as leader but there were two definite leaders who took on the role of deciding what task each of us should do. This occurred as a result of the two feeling that they were going to take on more, we let them take the lead due to their willingness to undertake the greater part of the task. Despite this I managed to take charge when it came to the title and how information was displayed. Due to the lack of clear leadership this meant that we did not always meet up and there was no time to rehearse before presenting to the class. Each team member was given a task to complete but due to lack of clear roles and responsibilities and we got on to complete the task at hand. According to Thompson (2009:160) â€Å"good practice is based on partnership, team work and good communication amongst all members†. It was essential to create positive group dynamics as this would aid the relationship between the team members, as such the relationship had to be constructive as well as productive (Lafasto Larson 2001). Belbin (1996:64) stated â€Å"that an approach to human relationships in work groups, in which each individual has a defined role†. In this case there were two people that were the leaders and they were dominant in making decisions without consulting the rest of the team. In relation to team roles I took on the role of resource investigator Belbin (1981: 84) describes this as a person that is very optimistic. I endeavoured to relay my opinion in order to contribute and make corrections as expected by the group but to my work was disregarded in my absence. There are a number of issues that can affect a good group dynamic and for our team it was poor communication, different information would be passed on yet after meeting the other teams had done something differently. This factor I believe affected my performance and others as well. For instance we emailed each other what our ideas but the two leaders were negative towards my suggestions and the responded in a way that demonst rated decisions had been made already. Furthermore not all members received updates due to not being linked in so there was missed information, at the time of presenting suggestions on how it should be done were ignored this was annoying and evoked some strong emotions. Unfortunately it was late to resolve this issue I felt strongly that decisions were made without critical analysis and this was a direct result of lack of leadership. When we started to develop the poster we recognised that we had limited time, space and therefore we decided to develop a poster that was precise, concise and easy for the social work students and service users to understand. The purpose was to inform and provide an understanding of about the social theory for practice and also how well it works with service users. It was also essential for the design and colour scheme of the poster to be practical. According Fook et al (2007:54) states that â€Å"depending on visual workshops students or people are more likely to remember colourful presentations and are drawn to them†. The poster was good it described the social work theory for practice and was clear and precise on the subject matter, but despite this I felt that the poster should have been more about the social work theory for practice than the subject depression. The arrangement of information was sufficient considering the information that had to be gathered but it would have been better to have less information on the poster. The poster illustrated clearly that the service user was the expert of their own recovery and this in turn empowered them in making good choices, this evidently highlights the advantages and disadvantages of the person-centred therapy. Trevithick (2012: 91) emphasised that social workers should work with service users holistically in order to get a better understanding of their life. Service users and carers express that the most essential quality they would appreciate from social workers is understanding and patience. This I believe was as a result of the fact that social work theories and service policies vary in their assumptions on the nature of service users, their problems, society and role of social workers. Whittington et al (1995:27) states that â€Å"when a social worker makes sense of a problem or issue he or she also makes certain assumptions†. This is subjectivist philosophy and works with free will. It deals with insider’s view, self determining ways and human nature for instance dealing with the relationship that the client has with the social world around them (Stepney et al 2000). The poster did not illustrate the advantages of the usage on the therapist this was due to limited space and only focusing on the service user. For instance a therapist may not feel weighed down while working with a service user who is aware and more positive this will empower the therapist as well as the service user. Rowe and Llic (2009) stated that â€Å"posters are brilliant way of tran sferring knowledge and suitable form of educational publication†. He further emphasised that people are more likely to be drawn to visual elements of a poster than the subject or content and it was essential for the author to include their name in order to effectively convey the educational subject matter. As a student social worker I have to critically analyse and appraise the social work theories there are six critical criteria’s namely; Subjectivist- objectivist = philosophical position, Theories of society= provides an explanation, Research and research evidence= provides evidence and credibility to theories, Ethics and theories of social justice =provides understanding against the BASW codes of ethics and values, Service user and carers perspective=an insider perspective and Model of practice= theories are in context. There are six theories in social work practice namely psychodynamic theory, Social learning theory, Theory of moral reasoning, systems theory, conflict theory and theories of cognition. The person-Centred approach was adopted work of the psychologist Dr Carl Rogers (1902-1987),the approach was psychotherapy and counselling. He believed that â€Å"the basic nature of the human being, when functioning freely, is constructive and trustworthy†(Rogers 1961:94). The Person-centred approach (PCA) â€Å"is an emotional and psychological approach to the person a ‘way of being’, from which perception of self, reality and behaviour may be reorganized. Its underlying principles are â€Å"the primacy of the actualizing tendency, the assertion of the necessity and sufficiency of the therapeutic conditions and the realization on the part of the therapist – of a non-directive attitude† (Rogers 1947). According to Thorne (1991:36) â€Å"one of the limitations of person-centred approach resides not in the approach itself, but in the limitations of particular therapists and their ability or lack of it to offer their service users the required environment for transformation and development†. Thorne on the other hand unreservedly accepted that in his own experience, there are particular kinds of service users who are unlikely to be much helped by the approach. Furthermore Christopher (1996:22) concurred that â€Å"there are sincere attempts to understand our own motivations, theories, service users are best achieved through considered and critical dialogue and reflection.† Nevertheless person-centered approach is very relevant in social work practice and this approach as â€Å"a psychosocial approach takes into account that people have both inner worlds and outer realities but the way we perceive the world sometimes differs from the way others see it† (Coulshed Orme, 2012:108). Trevithick (2012:124) stated that â€Å"person-centred approach was a well researched psychological approach that is based psychoanalysis-Freud (1856-1939), behaviourism based on theories of Pavlov (1927), Watson(1970),Skinner (1974)etc and humanistic psychology Carl Rogers(1902-1987) and Maslow (1973).† An internet search on PsycINFO revealed 612 educational journals on person-centred therapy of these 411where peer reviewed journals the data was gathered from a range of groups, ages and genders. The bulk of the studies demonstrated that person-centred approach is essentially effective in getting results with service users to transform their lives. There is research evidence on the use of person-centred approach or therapy in mental health settings with adults, children and older people. It is essential to note that despite the fact that it has been used in cognitive behaviour therapy has also shown that it is a successful implement. There are a number of other approaches for instance pharmacological, psychodynamic and psychoanalytical evidence has shown that as a course of action it is short term but it is better to have intervention than non at all. The observed research, analysis as well as other types of research are vital in appraising the social work theory for practice. Orme e t al (2010:159) stated that â€Å"when one finds research or peer reviewed journals there are questions to be asked for instance who owns the research and what their objective is†. In conclusion the making of the poster was a new experience for me but helped provide clarity on group dynamics, theory of practice related to the poster and social work practice.â€Å"The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.†(BASW 2012) APPENDIX 1 REFERENCES BASW 2012 Code of ethics Belbin, R, M. (1993) Team Roles at Work, Oxford; Heinemann Christopher, J.C. (1996) Counselors’ inescapable Moral visions Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 17-24. Coulshed, V and Orme, J. (2006) Social work Practice, 4th Edition, and Palgrave Macmillan. Fook J and Gardner F (2007) Practising critical Reflection, A Resource Handbook, Open University Press. Healy, K. (2012) Social work methods and skills, the essential foundations of practice Palgrave Macmillan. Hogg, Micheal A, Vaughan, Graham, M. (2005) Social Psychology 4th Edition Pearson, Prentice Hall. Howe, D. (2009) A brief introduction to social work Theory.Basingstoke; Palgrave Macmillan. Orme J and Shemmings D (2010) Developing research based social work practice, Palgrave Macmillan. Payne, M. (1997) Modern social Work Theory, 2nd Edition, Basingstoke Macmillan Payne, M. (2005) Modern social Work Theory, 3rd Edition, Basingstoke Macmillan Rogers, C. R and Russell, D.E (2002) Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary – An Oral History. Roseville, CA: Penmarin Books Stepney P and Ford D (2000) Social Work Models, Methods and Theories, A framework for practice, Russell House Publishing. Stogdon C and Kiteley R (2010) Study skills for social workers, SAGE publications. Thompson N (2009) Understanding Social Work, 3rd edition, Palgrave Macmillan. Trevithick P (2012) Social Work Skills and Knowledge, a practice handbook, 3rd edition, Open University Press. Wilson K, Ruch G, Lymbery, M and Cooper A (2008) Social Work, An introduction to contemporary Practice, Ashford Colour Press Ltd.

The Old Man And The Sea :: essays research papers

The Nobelprize winning book: The old man and the sea, has been written by Ernest Hemingway and was published in 1982, though the original American print had been published in 1952. The title is exactly what the book is about. It is a short story. The story is written in one continuous whole and is written from the view of the writer, it is very realistic. The description of the setting are the dominating factor in this book. The author spends a lot of time, for describing the sea, and what takes place. There are a lot of dialogues in the book. Example:"Who gave this to you""Martin. The owner""I must thank him""I thanked him already," the boy said."You don't need to thank him.""I'll give him the belly meat of a big fish," the old man said. "Has he done this for us more than once?""I think so""I must give him something more than the belly meat then. He is very thoughtful for us."The next fragment I find really representative for the whole book, because it is a fragment in which the old man is talking to himself, like he does all the time, and he is saying how great the fish is, which he does quite a few times too."He is a great fish and I must convince him, hethought. I must never let him learn his strengthnor what he could do if he made his run. If I werehim I would put in everything now and go untilsomething broke. But, thank God, they are not asintelligent as who kill them; although they aremore noble and more able."The book is about an old man, who goes out fishing (his profession, not as a sport) one day. He decides to go really far out, before the sun comes up. Then one of his lines goes under, and he hooks the fish. But the fish is so strong, that he can't pull him up. The old man thinks that if he lets the fish pull his boat, a sailing-boat the size of a rowing-boat, the fish will go out of strength and die soon.But it's a very very strong fish and he keeps pulling for a day and a half. Then the fish gets out of strength and starts circling around the boat, a sign of tiredness. But when the fish is close to the boat the old man sees how big he really is, he thinks he is about 1500 pounds.

Teaching Argument Evaluation in An Introductory Philosophy Course Essay

Teaching Argument Evaluation in An Introductory Philosophy Course ABSTRACT: One of the greatest challenges in teaching an introductory philosophy course is convincing students that there are, indeed, reliable standards for the evaluation of arguments. Too often introductory students criticize an argument simply by contesting the truth of one of its claims. And far too often, the only claim in an argument that meets serious objections is its conclusion. For many students, the idea that an argument displays a structure which can be evaluated on its own terms is not very difficult to grasp. Unfortunately, the idea is grasped only in an abstract way, with insufficient appreciation of how structural problems manifest themselves in concrete arguments, and without the vocabulary for formulating structural criticisms. But this paper is not simply about teaching logic, it is about pedagogy. Our task is to instill in the student the habit of clear thinking. When we send our students out into the world, we have to ensure that they are prepared for it. Introduction One of the greatest challenges in teaching an introductory philosophy course is convincing students that there are, indeed, reliable standards for the evaluation of arguments. Too often introductory students criticise an argument simply by contesting the truth of one of its claims. And far too often the only claim in an argument that meets serious objections is its conclusion. For many students, the idea that an argument displays a structure which can be evaluated on its own terms is not very difficult to grasp; unfortunately, the idea is grasped only in an abstract way, with insufficient appreciation of how structural problems manifest themselves in concrete arguments, ... ... extended arguments can be explained in terms of sufficiency, a concept that the student can easily grasp by seeing how a proposition presented as belonging to one of the linked arguments may also be employed as a premise in another of the arguments. Assignments: Several chain syllogisms. Session 6 This session should be devoted to the examination of the limitations of term logic. It has proved useful to consider simple arguments that make use of very basic truth-functional logic (modus ponens, modus tollens, and the hypothetical syllogism are easily enough explained). While these can usually be translated without too much effort into the form of a categorical syllogism, the awkwardness of doing so is clearly prohibitive. At this point, however, the battle is already won. The students are actively engaged in the logical analysis and evaluation of arguments.

Public vs Private Healthcare

As a first generation Canadian, due to the on-going debate about a possible public-private healthcare interface, I have become very familiar with the meaning of public vs private healthcare. In a socialist type government healthcare services are provided, funded and regulated by the government, which constitutes as a public healthcare system. On the other hand, entrepreneur-run (profit-based) clinics and hospitals that are privately owned would be considered part of a private healthcare sect.As a Canadian I have experienced the benefits of a relatively efficient public healthcare system. When comparing this to our neighbor’s healthcare system, statistics have shown that although the majority of services provided in the U. S. are through the private healthcare sect, the US seems to spend much more on maintaining this system per capita than Canada.Somehow indicating that a government regulated system might be run a little more efficiently. Furthermore, from personal experience I have learned that a public health care system also provides access to everyone.It eliminates discrimination according to an individual’s income and class, when you are a patient you are treated with the same level of care whether you live in a million-dollar condo or in government housing. This in my opinion promotes equality and unification amongst Canadian citizens.I believe that with the government spending at stake the health of Canadians is more closely monitored. For instance, statistics provide that smoking leads to many health issues that in the end cause the government quite a bit of spending, this intern has encouraged many campaigns against smoking.For example, in Australia (another country with a publicly run healthcare system) persons born after a certain year will not be legally allowed to purchase cigarettes. Although in the opinion of some people, this is against human rights, in my personal opinion I think it is for the greater good of the future health of A ustralians. Something that Canadians should consider implementing along with the graphic anti-smoking packaging and very direct television-ads that are currently being used.Although, there are many advantages to public healthcare, we must not ignore  the disadvantages to a completely publicly run health care system. Considering that healthcare spending is dependent on taxes and the allocation of funding is at the mercy of government officials, we are faced with issues such as ‘Cut Backs’.Recently, the Canadian government has decided to reduce healthcare funding to the provinces, this has been reflected in increased wait times (which are already unacceptably long) and increased the number of services not covered by provincial healthcare.This along with the comparison of much lower funding for innovation and cutting edge research that has been apparent in the U. S. due to private sect interest and investment, has been motivation enough to drive some of our striving and driven physicians to move down south to further advance their careers.With the options of private funding and investment, the quality of private clinics can be much higher than what we receive at publicly funded clinic. On the other hand, where funding is not sufficient the quality can be quite low which shows an inconsistent range that cannot be regulated.Despite this irregular pattern, another advantage to having a private healthcare option is provided and allowing those who would rather not wait and pay for their services to do so and keep this spending in Canada. Therefore, with these clear advantages and disadvantages of both a publicly and privately run healthcare system, there is room for debate.I believe that is the reason the Canadian government is considering a public-private healthcare interface to reap the possible benefits of both systems. This of course will bring along with it the problems that have to be considered before a transition is made.

Segmenting In PharmaSim

Alyssa Mgmt. 324 10/10/2011SegmentingThere are two different segmentation options we can use to segment our consumers in PharmaSim. The first is demographic segmentation which refers to young singles, young families, mature families, empty nesters, and retired. The second way we segment consumers in PharmaSim is by illness (cold, cough, and allergy). There are other ways to segment consumers in markets such as: geographic segmentation, psychographic segmentation, and behavioral segmentation.Geographic segmentation is based on region and city size, and where potential customers live or work. Psychographic segmentation focuses on lifestyle, personality or needs of prospective customers. Behavioral segmenting is built on observing actions or attitudes, such as: product features, usage rate, and where they buy. Looking at these different ways to segment prospective customers, PharmaSim can use behavioral segmenting to be more sufficient.For example, it could show our prospective customer s’ personal preferences as to what form of medications they are looking for such as: pill, gel capsule, or liquid. Adding behavioral segmentation with the demographic and illness segmentation already found in PharmaSim can help better lead us to specific marketing actions. Table of Segmented Market in 3 Different ways: Analyzing Perception of Allround As of right now Allround’s promote benefits are relieves aches, clears nasal congestion, reduces chest congestion, dries up runny nose, suppresses coughing, and helps you rest.When looking at the perception and brand’s purchased graphs, provided at the end of this report, we see that we are not doing very well with the allergy market or perceived effectiveness of allergy symptoms; however, because Allround isn’t an allergy medication we do not have to worry about how we are perceived in relieving those symptoms. Because we are perceived high effectiveness in fever in all three segments of the market we shoul d promote that in our product as one of the benefits.In the cold segment Allround is doing better than Besthelp in the perception of effectiveness for fever, cough, and chest congestion, but is behind Besthelp in nasal congestion and runny nose. Besthelp is the next highest brand purchased under Allround in the cold market, so Allround may want to decide that the advertising message should be to improve Allround's perceived effectiveness against runny nose or nasal congestion. Summary of the Three SegmentsEach segment (cold, cough, and allergy) have different brand leaders and different products are target marketing different consumers. Each segment has some of the same symptoms; therefore perception of the product (by symptoms) and how we market it is very important. For example, if Allround improves a little on the cough suppressant in their product or advertises it just a little more they may improve percentages in the cough segment. Overall, Allstar is sitting in a pretty good p osition right now with the Allround product.For the cold segment they are the leading brand purchased, and have the most satisfaction. In the cough segment, although they are under Coughcure and End in brands purchased and satisfaction of product, Allround is ahead of Coughcure in brand perception in everything except cough. Because cough and cold are more closely related than allergy, Allstar should stick to trying to improve in the cold and cough market. Allround is not targeted for allergy consumers so it does not have to worry about the allergy segment.

Civil War And Reconstruction Essay

The Civil War is the most widely written about event in American history and Reconstruction is the most mis-understood and least appreciated subject within this wider issue. Most people would prefer to escape into the heroic exploits of the battles that were fought than deal with the difficult social problems that the former enslaved population had to deal with. I am offering this essay since I believe that the African-Americans have been done a great disservice by the Nation. As a people they were forcibly brought to this land, they were enslaved in an illegal and immoral system, and then they were abandoned by that same Nation ostensibly after having their freedom returned. What happened to them was not fair and there is a debt due to them. I hope to show in this paper some of the offenses that I find glaring. What was Reconstruction supposed to accomplish? Was it supposed to provide a new economic start for the freed peoples? Was it supposed to rebuild and reorder the state governments that had seceded? Was it supposed to prosecute and imprison former Confederate officials? These questions were never fully answered, and for the most part they were never even adequately addressed. Liberals and African-Americans are more sensitive to the burden of the unfulfilled promise of Emancipation and Reconstruction, while so-called â€Å"realists† and conservatives proclaim that too much help has already been given (think: â€Å"Affirmative Action†). The truth though, does not lie neatly in the middle between these extremes. Horrific treatment was an unpleasant fact for the enslaved peoples, and they were denied an equal opportunity to enter fully the American body politic. To make matters worse this bitter cup of â€Å"denied citizenship† is still too often a fact today. Recently, the folk singer Bob Dylan (Rolling Stone, Sept. 2012) has said â€Å"†¦the country will never be able to rid itself of the shame of being founded on the backs of slaves. † I would like to rehearse some of the story of Slavery, some critical events in the war and afterwards, and to offer a reasonable suggestion for Restitution. The introduction of African Slavery to these shores was an unplanned event although the Spanish and the Portuguese had been involved with this trade for almost 100 years in this hemisphere before it appeared here. These are some of the highlights of that practice here: The first African slaves were 19 people, who in 1619 were captured by Dutch sailors from Spanish slave traders. Subsequently they were sold to the colonists at Jamestown for food. Initially, these people worked as indentured servants but they ultimately gained their freedom after completing a â€Å"work contract† for the colonists. The phrase â€Å"indentured servant† is misleading in this case since its modern usage means someone who works for a fixed period and is then manumitted. This was not the arrangement that was applied to the African captives who arrived later than these initial individuals did, since the practice gradually evolved to treat the adults as well as the children of the female slaves as also enslaved people (partus sequitur ventrum) 2.  Another misleading statement is that the term â€Å"servant† was widely used in the South, even past 1865, to refer to African people who were actually enslaved. Therefore, not much credence should be put into the seemingly benign phrase of â€Å"servant†3 when applied to these unfortunate human beings. The cost of this labor was attractive to the colonists since by 1638 an enslaved African laborer could be purchased for $27 while a European indentured servant cost a planter $255 for one year’s work. 4 The economic appeal of enslaved African laborers became the norm and quickly spread throughout the colonies.  After twenty years, ordinances legitimizing enslavement were commonplace in almost every colony and the practice had morphed into bondage for life, or more properly, chattel slavery. 5 These practices were immoral; they had no place in a respectable society. The pernicious tendency to view the Africans through the white supremacist lens quickly became dominant and was a concomitant of this chattel slavery. This was punctuated by the knowledge that Europeans were never enslaved while most enslaved people were Africans. The skin color of the enslaved became a facile marker that fit in well with the culturally supremacist view of the European colonists. In this section I try to show how the African Slave System, after gaining a foothold went on to become the most important part of the economy of the new Nation: As the profitability of the colonists’ agricultural enterprises quickly rose, it was essential to procure a sufficient number of workers since labor shortages were a constant headache. 7 Enslavement of the Indigenous Peoples had become steadily more problematic and by the 1750’s this practice had ceased altogether. European workers were both expensive and tended to leave their employers to start plantations of their own, or to return home. Therefore, a more reliable source of economically viable labor became a necessity, and that baleful need coincided with the rise of the Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade from Africa. This phenomenon was heaviest during the 16th through the 19th centuries,9 when an estimated 11 million captives from Africa were ultimately landed at Western Hemispheric destinations out of 15 million who had been loaded onto these horror-filled ships. 0 The differences in these numbers were human beings who had died en route through miserable treatment meted out by the slave traders. The attrition rate during these voyages was a startling 0. 36 persons for every person who disembarked in the New World. We should not forget these stark truths. About 650,000 ~ 720,000 apprehended persons of the numbers shown above,11 it is thought, were brought into what was to become the United States. Employing the attrition rate noted before we can estimate that about 245,000 people were lost from the aggregate number of cap tives bound for these shores. Given the losses in the war that was to come it’s almost as though the Divine Being had decided to punish this country for these sins at a rate of three-to-one. By 1860, the survivors had increased through natural growth to more than 4. 000,000 enslaved and freed peoples12 and were primarily located in the states that were to become part of the Confederacy (76% there and another 18% in the Border States13). What fueled this enormous increase in the numbers of the enslaved was that starting in the 1790’s the revolution of the cotton gin and the corresponding leap in cotton exports demanded an exponential rise in subservient labor. So what had started as a straightforward small-scale agricultural experiment, primarily growing foodstuffs, had metastasized into an industrial system practically keeping the Nation afloat with its lucrative revenues. Before the war began the cotton trade – or more realistically â€Å"King Cotton† – constituted 2/3 rds of the wealth of the Nation. 14 What motivated these slaveholders to import and retain so many African Laborers besides the economics? Evidently the lure of being a member of an aristocratic leisured-class was appealing. Most of the apologists for these slaveholders had classical education, and they employed arguments from Greek and Roman Antiquity, which portrayed slavery as a prominent component of the civilizing mission they were engaged in. Their lower income regional compatriots, although not slave owners themselves, were eager to emulate this conduct, which they viewed as valuable and status-filled. The Southern way of life was born: it was profitable for the elite; it was an identity vehicle for the lower classes; but it was hellish for the enslaved. Further, it was built upon the most cruel and involuntary system imaginable which had as a mainstay the dissolution of the Africans’ families both here and in their original homelands. The American governmental establishment – at all levels -bears the greatest guilt for this outrageous affront. It is important to recall that these slave traders and slaveholders were in many cases prominent members of the various governments that acceded to or promoted this horrific conduct. The enslaved people, it should be remembered, did not voluntarily agree to be forcibly dragged to these shores. Despite the claims made by the â€Å"Slavocracy† that they were performing a civilizing mission by maintaining this obscene practice, the only positive good was that the lives of the slaveholders was being enhanced! EXASPERATION After Slavery had become such an integral component of the Nation, regional differences in the attitudes towards that infernal system began to be felt all around. Exasperation was the order of the day but the African enslaved people were suffering the most: There were three sets of players in this tragedy: the Northern Whites; the Southern Whites (slaveholders and on-slave holders); and the enslaved Africans. It is unequivocally true that the enslaved peoples did not create nor did they benefit from this monstrous catastrophe. The other groups however, either benefited in a direct way or thought their social status was improved through the bacillus of racism. Exasperation however, was shared by all to some degree. The Northerners became progressively m ore dissatisfied with their impotence following the Revolution while the Southerners were increasingly anxious that the North was lining up new Free Soil states that would nullify their voting majorities in Congress. The enslaved though, were in anguish since everything that people could cherish was systematically being denied to them after they had been wrenched away from their homes. The enslaved increasingly attempted to build an alternate life, sub-rosa as it were, by fleeing their masters or by engaging in sabotage or willful incoherence. 15 They also constructed a parallel universe of their own by founding separate places of worship (the Whites did not allow the enslaved to be an equal part of their devotional services) and their own systems of less-than-formal education. t was during this period that it could be said that a new genus was born – the â€Å"African –American†. What they did not have was any significant power over their futures except as ad hoc combinations that could be assembled, when conditions permitted. They expressed this through manifestations such as the Underground Railroad16 (which saw 6,000~ 30,000 African-American flee; figures are imprecise), various slave rebellions (some bloody), and a general unwillingness to be smothered by enslavement (conduct just short of insurrection). Another group, though small in numbers, was the Free Blacks. These people became the vanguard of the African-American middle and professional classes that successfully operated between the seams of the larger society. The actions of this sub-group were able to relieve some of the pressures that had built up in the larger body of enslaved African-Americans and help to point the way for a more prosperous life for all.